S03: Journey to the East

• Did Marco Polo go to China? Does it matter that he did (or not)?
• How do we know what we know about Marco Polo?
• Is history ‘factual’ or just another form of fiction?

What it is

• Small cargo volume
• Greater impact on history through transmission of ideas, technologies, and artistic motifs, beyond just trade goods.
• The term “Silk Road” coined by Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877; local peoples referred to routes by their destinations or simply as northern or southern routes.

What it is not

• Not an actual road but rather a series of shifting, unmarked paths through deserts and mountains.
• Silk was just one of many trade goods, including chemicals, spices, metals, saddles, leather products, glass, and paper.

Westward…

• Mongol forces invaded Khwarazm Empire (1219-1225):, resulting in the massacre of millions.
• This campaign solidified the Mongols’ reputation for invincibility and mercilessness, with Chinggis Khan described as the “scourge of Allah” by Arab chroniclers.

… Then back

• Mongol forces advanced as far west as the Kipchak Steppes north of the Caspian Sea and south to the Black Sea via the Caucasus.
• Most troops returned to Mongolia between 1224 and 1225 after extensive campaigns.

• The Mongols transitioned from nomadic herding to relying on the spoils of war for their well-being.
• Chinggis Khan demanded loyalty and obedience from his followers, emphasizing loyalty and revenge.
• The Mongol military was organized into 95 units of 1,000 fighters, with command based on ability and bravery.

Impact on Population and Governance in China:

• Decline in registered population: 100 million (1100); 60 million (1290)
• Levies of food, horses, equipment, and labor service devastated local population
• Increased communication of plagues across Asia worsened the situation

• Wariness toward Confucian scholar-officials and exclusion from ruling positions
• Ethnic hierarchy for the population, with native Chinese in the South at the bottom
• China seen as one section of the vast Mongol empire

• Rapid transfer of people, goods, and diseases across Central Asia
• Undeniable brutality of military campaigns, but also significant contributions to civilization
• Change in statecraft: From “all-under-heaven” to “great state”

• Extensive and frequent interactions between East and West
• Welcoming relations with foreigners and facilitation of travel
• Asian goods reaching Europe and inspiring the Age of Exploration

• What are we looking at?
• What can this object tell us about culture under Mongol rule?

• The Mongol conquest of Persia in the 13th century established an extensive trade network connecting China to the Mediterranean.
• Persian artists adopted various elements from Chinese iconography, including lotus flowers, deer, dragons, and mythical creatures.

• What did Marco Polo see? What didn’t he see?
• Anything he saw that surprised / puzzled you?
• How would you describe Marco Polo as traveler and writer?

• Three teams: Proposition, Opposition, Jury
• 5 mins prep
• 15-min debate (opening, free, closing)
• 5 min deliberation

• Italo Calvino (1923-1985) published “Invisible Cities” in 1972.
• Each micro-story functions as a standalone, peculiar, and thought-provoking miniature world.
• When read collectively, these stories serve as both an atlas and an encounter, illustrating an encyclopaedia of empire from Marco Polo to Kublai Khan.
• True reality is discovered in the intersections and connections, highlighting the concept of a system of infinite relationships.