S07: Foreign Devils
Misinformation and China
January 21, 2026
Recap: Qianlong: Powerful monarch, yet powerfully insecure
- Sorcery scare of 1768
- “Information dilemma” of autocracies
- Myth of Oriental despotism
Boxer Rebellion, according to ChatGPT
The Boxer Rebellion was a violent uprising that took place in China from 1899 to 1901. It was led by a secret society known as the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, commonly referred to as the Boxers. The rebellion was primarily motivated by opposition to foreign influence and Christianity in China. […] The Boxer Rebellion marked a significant turning point in Chinese history. It highlighted the growing discontent and resistance against foreign interference, paving the way for the Chinese Revolution in 1911 and the eventual establishment of the Republic of China. It also contributed to the rise of Chinese nationalism and anti-imperialist movements in the 20th century.
Key questions
- What was the Boxer Rebellion? Was it an “anti-foreign” movement
- Rumors and mass hysteria: What are their causes? How to study them historically?
- How to think about history – as event, experience, and myth?
Qing on the verge: Succession crisis
Xianfeng Emperor (b. 1831-1861) assumed the throne in 1850 and inherited an empire in crisis. Only child emperors would ascend the throne before the dynasty’s collapse in 1911.
Qing on the verge: Foreign conflicts
- 1855-1858: Second Opium War against England and France
- 1858: Outer Manchuria ceded to Russia
- 1860: Treaty of Beijing
Qing on the verge: Domestic unrest
- 1850-1864: Taiping Civil War
- 1851-1868: Nian Rebellion in Anhui, Shandong, and Henan
- 1855-1872: Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan
- 1867-1876: Dungan Revolt in Xinjiang
Folk Religion and Popular Uprisings: Example of Taiping
- The opening of ports to Western trade led to job losses for millions of Southerners; many turned to banditry.
- A religious sect preaching milleniaral.
- Hong Xiuquan: Failed exam candidate, born in Hakka highlands in Fujian near Canton
- Encounter with American baptist missionary Issachar Jacox Roberts during exam trips
Qing on the verge: Natural Disasters
- 1855: Yellow River changed course; Grand Canal flooded.
- 1873-1876: three year drought
- 1876-1879: Great North China Famine in five provinces, claiming at least 9.5 million lives.
Qing besieged
Internal and external conflicts in the 19th century
Boxer Rebellion: Domestic Tensions
- The Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895) aimed to modernize China through Western technology while maintaining Confucian values.
- Tension Between Reformers and Conservatives: Emperor Guangxu and Empress Dowager Cixi
Boxer Rebellion: Immediate Context
- Treaty of Shimonoseki: Qing’s finest navy was destroyed during the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895).
- As a result, Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan and recognized Korean independence, which highlighted China’s weakness and fueled nationalistic sentiments.
- “Carving up China”: intense foreign intervention in China, with various powers carving out spheres of influence.
Boxer Rebellion in Four Images
- What are we looking at?
- Who created the image? Who was the intended audience?
- How might the image have been received?
Figure 1
Le Petit Journal, Events of China: Assassination of Baron of Ketteler, Minister of Germany (Evénements de Chine, Assisinat du baron de Ketteler, ministre d’Allemagne), July 22, 1900
Figure 2
An illustration by a European correspondent of a glove-puppet show performed by Boxers to encourage recruiting, ca. 1900
Figure 3
William Allen Rogers, political cartoon about the relationship between the United States and the Boxers, “The Boxers,” Harpers Weekly, June 9, 1900
Figure 4
The Devils (foreigners) Worshipping the Hog (Jesus)
Discussion: The Boxer Proclamations
- What is “Yihetuan” (the Boxers)?
- Why are foreigners the focus of the Boxers’ anger?
- Why might the common Chinese farmer find it appealing to join the Boxers?
Rumors and conspiracies: Discussion of Cohen
- What were the origins of the Boxer movement?
- Why was there such an extreme response to the foreign presence at that time?
- What are the main types of rumors? Why and how did they spread?
- How can historians reconstruct the Boxer movement – as event, as history, and as myth?
Famine in 1899/1900: Boxer Rebellion
- Severe agricultural crisis caused by drought, and exacerbated by poverty and foreign intervention.
- Many blamed foreign influence for their suffering, including the famine.
- Popular movements to expel foreign presence and restore Chinese sovereignty.
Rethinking the Boxers: Domestic Contexts
Complex origins, multiple factors:
- Longstanding grievances against missionary activities and their extra-territorial privileges
- Co-optation of popular movements for political purposes
- Defection of leading governors from Qing court
Famine in 1899/1900: Global History
- Flooding of Yellow River in 1899 and drought in 1900 as part of global El Nino events.
- El Niño years often coincide with outbreaks of disease: cholera epidemic in 1900.
- The Indian Famine of 1899-1900 affected nearly 60 million people and resulted in the deaths of possibly up to 9 million.
- British Viceroy Lord George Curzon prioritized budget concerns over humanitarian aid, fueling anti-colonial sentiments.
Siege mentality and Political Rumors
Boxer Protocol
- Signed between China and eleven Great Powers on September 11, 1901
- 450 million silver taels as indemnity; 668 million with interest
- Entire revenue structure, except land tax, placed under foreign control
- Further erosion of national sovereignty: Japan retained troops in north China
Boxer as Misnomer: Myths in China
- “Yihetuan”: Righteous and Harmonious Militia
- Righteous resistance against foreign invasion
- Boxers as proto-socialists
- Killing as only one stage: foreign occupation and unequal treaties
Boxer as Misnomer: Reception in the West
- “Boxer”: massacres by xenophobes
- Cause of event: foreign lives were threatened
- Resonance with anti-colonial disquiet in South Africa, Philippines, and more
- Chinese Boxers compared to Native Americans
Final Reflection
Cohen: “The history the historian creates is in fact fundamentally different from the history people make.”
- What does that mean?
- Is that a problem?
- If so, what do we do?